CONFEDERATION STRENGTHENS AND GROWS:  

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When Canada was first formed it consisted of only four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. It did not reach from sea to sea, as the country's motto declared, but this was the first order of business for the newly formed federal government in Ottawa. This lecture will outline the beginnings of westward expansion into the prairies, the acquisition of Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company, and the entry of British Columbia into Confederation.

However, before considering the expansion of Canada it is crucial to understand that shortly after its creation Canada faced the possibility of a province trying to secede: Nova Scotia.

Nova Scotia's government was opposed to westward expansion. When the federal government, the Conservatives under John A. Macdonald, had their first throne speech read in 1867 they outlined all the things that they wanted to accomplish during their first mandate: acquiring Rupert's Land, completing construction of the Intercolonial Railway in the Maritimes, and creating a country that would stretch from sea to sea. However, this desire for westward expansion evoked an almost immediate response from eastern MPs, ministers, and Premiers . Joseph Howe, who had been a vociferous opponent to Confederation prior to 1867, was opposed to it - saw it as an example of the Dominion government stepping into imperial shoes. He referred to westward expansion as the “afterbirth of Confederation” He saw it as presumptuous that a fledgling country would try to acquire and settle a land that the great British Empire had never tried to settle.

The resolutions to acquire the Northwest, however, passed through the House despite the opposition of eastern MPs. The entire event was evidence of the growing opposition from Nova Scotia. The new provincial government of Premier Annand was by this time actively working to repeal Nova Scotia's incorporation into Confederation. It seemed an easy task as his government faced only two opposition MLAs (Members of the Legislative Assembly).

Confederation. had never been particularly favoured in Nova Scotia, and this became apparent in the provincial elections, as noted, and in the first federal election of 1867 when 18 of 19 Nova Scotia seats were won by anti-Confederates. The only pro-confederate to win was former premier Charles Tupper

Joseph Howe led this anti-Confederation charge as the founder and leader of the Anti-Confederation League which he formed in 1866. He was a popular politician having been premier from 1860-1863. Howe represented a generation of Nova Scotians who remembered the colonies important position in the triangular trade between it, Britain, and the West Indies , and he wanted to strengthen ties with Britain, not weaken them through British North American Union.

A petition requesting repeal was passed in the legislature in Feb., 1868, and sent onwards to London. Britain's Colonial Office, not really knowing what to do, accepted it and notified Ottawa which sent Charles Tupper to London to counter it.

It was a difficult time for the Dominion government. It had just passed a tariff on imported American food into Canada, and American food was an important import into Nova Scotia. Food from Ontario had a longer distance to travel, and would, therefore, be more expensive. This tariff played into Howe's depiction of Confederation as a scheme to enrich Central Canada.

What stopped the petition was the unwillingness of the British government (under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli) to pass this petition through their House of Commons. It reflected the desire of the British government to keep Confederation together. The petition was dead, and Howe and Tupper both returned to Canada.

Prime Minister Macdonald, however, was advised by Tupper, and Leonard Tilley (former premier of New Brunswick) that the situation in Nova Scotia was still explosive, and Ottawa was ill advised to think that it could be pacified with a few concessions. Indeed, the Nova Scotia Attorney-General stated in the provincial legislature that

Nova Scotia would not rebel against the Queen, but when the Queen rebelled against Nova Scotia and abdicated her authority over Nova Scotia, Nova Scotians were released from their allegiance.

Macdonald was advised that if N.S. was dealt with in a conciliatory manner it might serve to bring Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland into Confederation. This was necessary as talk of annexation to the United States was being considered by the NS government.

A deal was slowly brokered between Ottawa and Halifax. Nova Scotia’s debt allowance was increased, and its federal subsidy increased (from $63,000 a year to 83,000). Howe was promised a position in Cabinet which he gained through a by-election. Shortly thereafter N.S.’s economy began to pick up which took the edge off the economic grievance of the repeal movement.

Expansion into the Northwest:

While Ottawa was attempting to conciliate Nova Scotia, it was also attempting to please expansionists in Ontario who wanted to annex the Northwest. The Hudson’s Bay Company, by the Charter granted by Charles II in 1670, had been given control of all the lands that drained into Hudson Bay - an area of approximately 1.5 million square kilometers.

Acquiring this land was a condition set by George Brown before he entered into the Great Coalition of 1864. The land was eventually transferred to Canada by an act of the British parliament,  the Rupert’s Land Act

However, negotiations still had to be undertaken. Prime Minister Macdonald sent two men, William McDougall (originally a Clear Grit reformer now an MP) and George Etienne Cartier. McDougall was sent because some in Cabinet did not think that Cartier could be trusted to support the interests of Ontario (primarily) because he was French. It was Cartier, however, who had a better grasp of the negotiations and secured the deal - McDougall was a bit lazy and was more a symbol of Ontario’s insistence on acquiring the Northwest.

The negotiators accepted the terms set forth by the HBC: a payment of £300,000 pounds; and 1/20 of the land in the “fertile belt”, and a certain amount of land around each posts would be retained by the HBC.

This, however, was not the end of Canada's 'development ' of the northwest. A system of government had to be put into place. The entire territory, now known as the Northwest Territories, would be placed under the control of an appointed Lieutenant Governor who would select a council of 15 men to advise him.

The Metis Resistance-Rebellion of 1870

Such a change, however, did not go unopposed. In what is today Winnipeg, but known that time as Red River, was a sizeable population of Metis (people who were of mixed heritage: either French/Native, or English/Native). They feared the imposition of Canadian rule on their territory, and would ultimately start a rebellion against the Dominion government to have their concerns heard.

Part of their concern was the nature of the westward expansion movement. It was based almost entirely in Ontario, was largely Protestant and English. It  was in Ontario that the Canada First group emerged, led by Charles Mair. They even had a branch group in Red River, led by John Charles Schultz. Neither branch ever recognized the existence of the Metis in what would become the province of Manitoba. Many Metis, who were French speaking and Catholic, were afraid what this new government (dominated by English speaking Protestants) would mean to their way of life.

The Beginnings of the Rebellion

The Metis resistance led by Louis Riel was not comprised of the entire French speaking community, or all of Red River. Riel was not supported  by the Natives living in the surrounding area (the government treated with them with Treaties number One and Two), nor by the recent Ontario settlers. His support came largely from, in varying degrees, the Roman Catholic clergy, Americans, and many of the French speaking Metis community. English speaking Metis were in the middle, ready to move from Riel to the side of the government if the rebellion went against them.

The resistance took shape slowly in 1869 between the months of  June and October. The first overtly political act undertaken by Riel was in October of 1869. The first Canadian land survey party was sent to Red River to survey Metis River lots. A party of armed Metis, led by Riel, refused them the right to pass over a piece of land owned by a Metis farmer. The survey party withdrew to North Dakota.

Riel quickly formed a National Committee within two weeks, and administered oaths of loyalty to their members. A barrier was erected along the main trail to the United States (it is still called La Barriere today), and the Metis began to police this road in order to control access to the settlement.

The next challenge arrived in the person of William McDougall, the nominated Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West Territories. On 2 November 1869, a group of armed Metis men, led by Riel,  met McDougall as he attempted to enter the settlement. McDougall also retreated  across the boarder into the U.S.,  to Pembina, North Dakota.

Riel’s next act of defiance was to seize Upper Fort Garry on the south bank of the Assiniboine River. He sent several hundred Metis, and, without a shot being fired, seized the fort. It was a strategic military move - the fort was the strongest in the region and contained a cannon, small arms, and enough stored food to feed a sizable force for an entire winter.

William McDougall, during all of this, was still in Pembina.  As mail required some time to reach him, he was unaware of Riel’s actions through November. McDougall still believed that the original transfer date of the land to Canada was 1 December. So on the last day of November, he rode back into Canada and read a proclamation to his small party, out on the open prairies, that this land now belonged to Canada.  Then he went back over into the U.S. McDougall did not know was that Prime Minister Macdonald, intended to postpone  the transfer.

McDougall’s actions, however, quickly caused problems. Besides reading the proclamation, he also formed a group of men to put down Riel and those who were challenging his authority. These men moved to Lower Fort Garry, a site equally powerful as Riel’s. Showing considerable military foresight, Riel struck against the supplies of Lower Fort Garry. A shipment of pork for L.F.G. was still sitting in Red River.  So Riel attacked, and seized the food on 7 December.

Riel's led his coalition to fall apart. English speaking Metis were not as worried about McDougall entering Red River as Riel was, and did not support Riel's more radical actions. The convention dissolved, and Riel left with his French Metis supporters. Riel's most radical action, however, was declaring the establishment of a provisional government.  A declaration was also issued, often referred to as the Declaration of Metis Independence because of its similarity to the American Declaration.

It made a number of statements but several are important:

McDougall, realizing the futility of the situation eventually left to return to Ottawa by mid-December.  

Prime Minister Macdonald responded in three ways to this turn of events.

1.     He re-established HBC rule through Donald A. Smith, chief factor in charge of company affairs in North America to buy off the insurgents, or otherwise break Riel’s hold over the settlement

2.     Dispatch two commissioners to explains Canada’s intentions to the Metis - this proved to be useless as both men were essentially powerless.

3.     Began to prepare for a military expedition in summer of 1870.

Smith was a match for Riel. His goal was to negotiate the land transfer with the people of Red River, whereas Riel wanted the government to negotiate only with this provisional government. Smith failed, and Riel was able to consolidate his hold over the provisional government, and have himself declared President.

Over the ensuring weeks an important event occurred that led to Riel’s downfall.

His execution was seen as murder by expansionists in Ontario, and increased pressure on Macdonald to find a military solution to problem in the west. 

However, in March 1870, a Red River delegation left for Ottawa with a list of demands as the basis for negotiation. There were several main points

The new province of Manitoba was created by the Manitoba Act, which received royal assent on 12 May 1870, and came into effect on 15 July 1870.

It embodied most of the rights demanded by the Metis, including responsible government, provincial status, bilingual institutions, denominational schools, and guarantees of land titles and of federal respect for Indian title.

However, Prime Minister Macdonald was still arable to control the situation. Manitoba was only 100 square miles in size, and surrounded by the vast North-West Territories which was to be administered from Ottawa. In both jurisdictions, Ottawa retained control of public lands and natural resources. – the only province in Confederation where this was to be the case. As the historian W.L. Morton wrote:  “Thus was Riel’s demand for provincehood at once granted and made almost a mockery.”

As regards Metis river lots – Macdonald granted security of tenure within accustomed plots of land (a very ambiguous definition). As regards the amnesty no guarantee was given in writing

However, despite this the Red River settlement did receive an agreement that went far beyond what Ottawa had originally intended when it first received control of Rupert’s Land.

In the spring, a Canadian military force was sent out to Red River under the command of Col. Garnet Wolseley. It was sent out for two reasons:

1.     To prevent American annexationists from entering the Territories.

2.     A way of keeping Ontarian expansionists quiet about the death of Scott  

Wolseley’s attitude towards Riel is revealed in a letter to his wife:

“Hope Riel will have bolted, for although I should like to hang him to the highest tree in that place, I have such a horror of rebels and vermin of his kidney, that my treatment of him might not be approved by the civil powers.”

The end result was Riel fleeing Red River for the United States, and the end of the first Metis Rebellion.

British Columbia Enters Confederation

The approach to enticing B.C. to enter Confederation was as businesslike as purchasing Rupert’s Land from the HBC. The Colonial Office in London simply directed the Governor of B.C. (Musgrave) to start negotiating BC's entry into Canada. The people of B.C. weren’t really enamoured with the east. They believed there were too many Scots for in Ontario, a people they called “Oatmeal Chinamen.”

Regardless, on March 12, 1870, the Executive Council of BC agreed to join if Canada would assume the colony’s debt, and responsibility for transportation projects (i.e.: a railway) to join with the rest of Canada. George Cartier, Ottawa's lead negotiator, agreed to all the terms, and even offered to take over public works for the province, and have a railway started within two years of B.C.’s entrance, and completed within ten years

There was some urgency on the part of Ottawa. The discovery of gold north of BC had led some to fear an influx of Americans into the region, and the eventual annexation of the colony. Also, a great deal of B.C. trade was with Oregon to the south and other U.S. states. Hence there was already some natural connection with the US as opposed to Canada.

This is not to say that there wasn’t opposition' however, the opposition was not well organized, nor was it well accepted amongst those people who counted in the province. On January 18, 1871, the Legislative Council unanimously ratified the bill to enter Confederation

It has been noted, however, that only 7% of the population of British Columbia, however, was qualified to vote for the Assembly in 1871. The vast majority of the province’s population (which was 80% Native in 1871) were not consulted about whether they wanted to enter into Confederation

PEI Enters Confederation

The last province to enter (until the creation of Alta and Sask. in 1905, and NFLD in 1949) was Prince Edward Island. Economic reasons lay behind PEI entering Confederation, and politics in the province

The island, although its economy was strong at this time, was saddled with government debt as a result of railway building on the island, and the premier, Joseph Pope realized that to improve transportation on the island would drive the government deeper into debt. He also believed that through Confederation his government could deal with the absentee landlord issue

Canada, therefore, agreed to take over the province’s debt, and construct a ferry service between the island and the mainland. Ottawa also used federal money to buy out the absentee landowners and sell the land at a good rate to Island farmers and people